History of Imari porcelain industry
Beginning
Official Japanese porcelain trade was recorded by the Dutch East India Company starting from 1650, but it was 25 years or earlier when Japan started to make porcelain of its own, and, no doubt, it had its origin in China.
For a long period, the porcelain industry of China was tightly protected by the Chinese emperors, and the trading of spices, silk, tea and porcelains, etc. to the west was controlled by the middlemen mostly Persians and Arabs both by road and by water. Starting in the early 16th century, after many struggles and failures, finally Portuguese explorers reached to China by sea and pushed through the tight trade gate of the empire. More Europeans followed the Portuguese in quest of the lucrative trade in Southeast Asia, and the maritime trade of the porcelain from China was rapidly increased. Although the Ming court had a strict policy banning the private foreign trade, the bribery to the corrupted Ming officials allowed Europeans for even more trade opportunities. While the Portuguese eventually established a trade location in Macao (1557), the Spanish soon claimed its post in Philippines (1565), and later the Dutch cut into the Chinese trade by force (1610). On the other hand, the increase in European trade also invited economical changes and uprises of rebels in China. These events, like a stone falling in water, caused a ripple effect which eventually weakened the emperor’s power, and invited the final fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644. Losing a central control in the country, the chaotic but vibrant trade lasted until the Qing court finally opened the foreign trade in 1684．
Across the sea, Japan had a long relationship with China possibly from ancient times. By the 8th century, a whole Chinese culture was transferred to the islands of Japan including social structure, language and Buddhism. After a long time of relatively peaceful relationship with China, Japan was awakened by the surprise attacks by the Mongols in 1274 and 1281. During the period of these invasion attempts by outsiders, Japan’s military force was enforced, and strong warriors and warlords had emerged. In 1333, the power struggles of the emperor’s court caused the military forces to take sides. When Ashikaga Takauji (1305-1358) entered Kyoto and became Shogun in 1338, two emperors were claimed from both sides, and these conflicts lasted until 1392. After the Mongol attacks in Japan, the trade between Japan and China was interrupted by piracy on the sea. When Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358-1408) became Shogun in 1369, he started the official trade with China again. This trade which brought Ming porcelains to Japan lasted until 1549.
After Yoshimitsu, Ashikaga shogunate did not prosper and the succession rivalry struggles led to the major conflicts among the daimyo lords, which spread to the civil war in 1467. When Portuguese seamen drifted to Japanese shore in 1543, it was during the unstable warring period. Many warlords welcomed Portuguese and then Spanish coming to offer the foreign trades, especially for firearms. They flourished their trade with Europeans, although it was under the condition of allowing them to spread Christianity in Japan. Some war lords, including Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) welcomed Europeans to their courts and many samurai worriers turned to Christian faith, openly or secretly. The Sengoku civil war period, when the local war lords ruled their territories freely, eventually came to an end. The unified power of Japan was established first by Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1590), then by Tokugawa Ieyasu (1603).
During the transition (1618-1683) from Ming Dynasty to Qing Dynasty, Matsura Clan who owned Hirado port was known to be a close ally to Ming refugee, Koxinga, who seized Taiwan from Dutch in 1661 and conducted active trade to fund his Ming Navy. (Taiwan was previously occupied by Dutch since 1624.) Hirado was a port located on the Northwest point of the Kyushu Island, close to the area where many kilns were built around that time. This area was called Hizen, which included HIrado Matsura territory, Saga Nabeshima territory and Omura territory. Hizen was also known to be a hotbed harboring Christians that time. Some of them were potters who produced porcelains to contribute to Portuguese trade since the kiln sites were in the secluded mountain area that was an ideal place to hide.
Sakoku, a regulated foreign policy, was enforced by Tokugawa shoguns over the years in the early to mid-17th Century. They removed foreigners except Chinese and Dutch from any seaports of Japan. When all the Europeans except Dutch was expelled from the country, the seaport of Hirado once crowded with Portuguese, Spanish, English and other foreigners with bustling economy was shut down, and the Tokugawa government built the exclusive trade post in Nagasaki in 1636, which was previously seized by Hideyoshi in 1588 by terminating Portuguese Jesuits community there. The trade post of Dejima, Nagasaki was contained tightly by Tokugawa until close to the end of Edo period (1859). Although Spanish and other Europeans were removed from the Japanese islands, it did not stop them from trading Japanese products all together; chances are, they continued trading goods from Japan using Chinese merchants as middlemen, meeting on the islands away from Japan. The foreign trade continued all through Edo Period, some legal, and some illegal.
In conclusion, the early period of Japanese porcelain industry, around 1616-1638 was partly created under Jesuit supervision, handled by Portuguese ships to the oversea markets. Their production was small and limited. Unfortunately, Portuguese never left any trace of historical evidence, possibly under their oath to Catholic faith during the years of severe prosecutions in Japan.
Chinese export porcelains
During Japan’s Sengoku era (1467-1568), samurai lords and merchants in Japan collected Chinese porcelains, and it became their status symbol of the class. With increasing trade with Europeans, Japan soon started to make their own porcelains for export.
Historical record of the porcelain trade in the early 17th Century in Japan is much obscure. Some of the export porcelains were imitation of so-called kraak ware. The name derived from the Dutch word, carracks meaning a Portuguese trade ship. Most of them were made in China but some but much fewer were made in Japan.
The Kraak ware was first produced in the late Ming period, in 1570s, and it was a side-product of Jingdezhen for export purpose. Various products of bowls, plates, vases, and ewers were created for consumers in South-East Asia, Japan, and Europe. Especially deep bowls, dishes, plates with a decorative design resembling an open hibiscus flower were popular. Majority were with blue and white decoration, and much few had some colors. This porcelain product became highly sought after among the collectors in Europe and also Japan, and the picturesque theme of nature, birds and animals, was copied by the Dutch Deft makers and also by the Hizen Imari makers quickly.
Great success of the Chinese Ming porcelain trade in Europe increased the production in China, and to boost the quantity, other sauces became active outside of Jingdezhen. Comparing Kraak porcelain made by Jingdezhen, the latter products were less in quality with hasty decorations, and some were semi-porcelains or stone wares. This trade ceramic ware was commonly named Swatou porcelain. They were mainly shipped from Zhangzou located in Fujian province in China.
Swatou ware is a mass-produced product for foreign market, and it has some imperfections and flaws, but by some reasons, it pleased Japanese connoisseur’s eyes because Japanese finds unique beauty in decaying objects or irregular shapes, rather than demanding the perfection in the objects.
Coloring method of porcelain was brought to the Japanese makers around 1620-1640. It was long believed to be by Chinese experts, but by the recent chemical examination on the porcelain, it suggests that they used European enamels and pigments, possibly brought to Japan by Jesuit missionaries.
Understanding Jesuits with a connection to the Catholic society of Europe, their mission was always to lead natives to the light of Christianity, but the history tells us that there was a good motive to build trade relationships with other undeveloped countries. Anyway, Japanese accomplished to decorate porcelain with color pigments.
When Portuguese and Spanish got removed from Japan, Dutch gained exclusive rights for the porcelain trade in Japan. They had a good hope for Japanese makers to produce impressive porcelain better than Chinese products. Their idea of colorful and luxurious decoration was demanded to the Japanese makers.
Using examples from Chinese porcelain wares like Kraak or Swatou style, Japanese were able to satisfy Dutch requests in time.
The popularity of the trade to Europe lasted well into the early part of the 18th century, when it was significantly declined, partially due to the political changes in Europe, and also Europe began their own porcelain industry.
Early Japanese porcelain
The potters of the early porcelain makers in Japan were the victims of the warring time in the history. Some were foreign slaves or refugees, and some were natives caught in the middle of the civil war and religious prosecutions. Korean potters were brought to Japan by Japanese war lords under Hideyoshi’s order during the invasion attempts (1592-1598). After their arrival in Japan, they had to face unstable future caught in the middle of the feudal conflicts in Japan. Most of the potters who started the porcelain kilns were settled eventually in the three domains of Hirado, Omura and Nabeshima territories, all located in the Hizen province of Kyushu. They kept their tight self-contained communities of cottage industries until the end of Edo Period.
During the heyday of the porcelain trade in Japan, the porcelain goods were examined and taxed by their feudal head called Daimyo, sold by Japanese merchants to Dutch and Chinese in Nagasaki. Under the Tokugawa’s strict caste system, potters and painters retained hereditary occupations granted the official licenses by the direct authority. They built communal kilns and workshops in the mountainous small villages usually within the tight borders. Most workshops in the village were run by family members, young and old. They kept relatively peaceful but regulated lifestyle supported by authorities and merchants who enjoyed lucrative porcelain trade.